Ancient civilizations are the origin of many modern traditions and cultural phenomenon. Much of western government, literature, science, mathematics, art, and philosophy originates from Ancient Greece and Rome, which influenced almost all of Europe. Despite the brilliance and innovation of many of these customs, there are some traditions that modern civilization did not take from these ancient empires, and for good reason. One of these is the horrific games put on by the Romans at the Colosseum during the height of the Empire. These spectacles were used to punish prisoners and criminals and entertain the high-class citizens, displaying the power and wealth of those who sponsored the acts. The most extravagant of these were the naumachiae, derived from the Greek word for naval combat[1]. These battles, unlike the infamous gladiator and animal fights, required a total transformation of the performance space, thousands of participants, and special areas, set pieces, and machinery constructed for the sole purpose of these exhibitions. The naumachiae were a physical representation of the power the emperors of ancient Rome wielded, but they also displayed the shortcomings of Rome that were hidden through the promotion of these lavish spectacles.
Like the gladiator battles and other spectacular events held in the Colosseum, the naumachiae were the ultimate form of violent entertainment, combining spectacle as well as the Roman sense of justice. In order for the naumachiae to take place, thousands of people were needed to fill the ranks of the naval combatants. These naumachiarii were usually prisoners of war and criminals, unlike gladiators, who were professionally trained soldiers[2]. In ancient Rome, talio was the force responsible for the creation of the mass executions staged in the arena. Talio is a Latin word meaning a punishment that evokes the misdeed. According to Seneca, “… retribution and revenge [were] the chief factors motivating emperors in their punishment of crimes”[3]. Examples of this form of justice in punishing criminals included cutting off a money-changer’s hands, executing criminals at the site of their crimes, and of course, the mass executions held in the arena. It was important that the punishment was as painful as possible, which required not only physical suffering, but mental suffering as well. The mentality behind the games was that humiliation would cause emotional trauma, and therefore befit whatever crime had been committed because the greatest amount of pain would be enacted upon the prisoner. The most famous instance of this idea is the mocking of Jesus in the book of Matthew in the New Testament of the Christian Scriptures. The soldiers who crucified Christ draped him in a purple cloak and placed a crown of thorns upon his head, mocking his status as King of the Jews[4]. Not only was Jesus put through severe physical torture, but he also had to endure mental humiliation because of his supposed crimes against the empire. Especially in Rome, humiliation was very damaging, because the “… damage to one’s existimatio [self-esteem, image] was so serious in Rome that infamia [crime, conspiracy] entailed a citizen’s loss of specific rights and priviledges”[5]. Because of the Roman belief that a dishonorable death was one of the most humiliating things that could happen to a person, many executions were held in the arena, so that the humiliating death of the criminal combatants could be witnessed by the entirety of the empire, and therefore magnify the suffering of the naumachiarii.
The games were not only for the punishment of criminals, but for the enjoyment of the public. It was the job of the emperors and other people of power to arrange the mass battles and public executions[6]. The magistrates strove to outdo their predecessors in the spectacular, as it was considered a “… tax on their status…”, as stated by Keith Hopkins, meaning that their status required them to pay the people a certain way; in this case, with spectacular entertainment. Success was judged through a tallying of the participants and audience that gathered, and so spectators were granted free admission. The greater the spectacle, the more people would show up, and this “market force” of brutal public entertainment is what led many powerful leaders to use the naumachiae[7].
The naumachiae were mainly historical reenactments of famous Greek naval battles. Because of the unpredictable outcomes of literal fights to the death, the organizers of the naumachiae would not allow them to be of Roman history, as they would not want to risk the side representing Rome to accidentally lose[8]. If the battles were Greek, it would not matter which side won the actual event; Rome’s history and people would still be safe in their esteem. Historic battles were the easiest stories to reenact, because they were not affected by magic or godly powers, and therefore could be put on without having to try and recreate the work of the gods. However, there were some mythological elements of the naumachiae. Nero was famous for his mythological storytelling in the amphitheater[9]. He had the myth of Icarus recreated, which involved fastening wings onto a man and forcing him to jump off of the high point of the amphitheater, resulting in the man’s death[10]. He also set up the myth of Zeus and Pasiphae, in which a young woman was made to climb inside of a wooden cow while the male animal was led to inseminate the replica. Another famous myth reenacted in the same context was that of Hero and Leander, in which Leander almost drowns in the Hellespont[11]. This myth also featured a troop of Nereids, goddesses of the sea, who swam while Leander made his lonely swim through the “ocean”[12]. These were smaller productions, as many of the myths did not involve great numbers of people, and so they could not be counted among the naumachiae; they also did not draw the same crowd that the mass combats did.
The naval battles represented the Roman passion for novel and elaborate ways of mounting spectacle. As with the gladiator battles, the theatricality that was created around the mass deaths proved an exciting event for all spectators, and glorifying for the sponsor[13] . Because of the sheer number of participants in each battle, a certain degree of anonymity was present, and so they were not given the glory that the gladiators enjoyed. Sometimes, if they fought with especially noticeable bravery, the naumachii would be recognized, but this did not happen often. When it did, though, it was a distinguishable event.
The famous Latin phrase associated with the gladiatorial games, “Morituri Te Salutamus”, has no actual recorded reference in gladiatorial battle, but does with the naumachiae[14]. The Latin writers Tacitus and Dio spoke of a naumachia held by Claudius in 52 CE. The group of soldiers chosen to fight in the battle were prisoners of war, knew each other well, and so did not want to fight each other, as the battle would lead to all of their deaths[15]. Claudius was so concerned about these prisoners trying to escape that he made “… the central portion of the lake… entirely surrounded by a ring of rafts or floats, manned by soldiers of the praetorian guard, protected by ramparts, catapults and ballistae, and ships with marines”[16]. In hope of appealing to Claudius’ compassion, the men saluted the emperor, invoking the well-known phrase, meaning “We who are about to die salute you”[17]. Unfortunately, Claudius was not turned to sympathy, and so the men were still forced to fight. They did so by inflicting as few wounds as possible until they absolutely had to kill, and Claudius eventually rewarded them for their bravery by releasing the survivors from the fight.
The naumachiae did not usually have such happy outcomes. Each of the sponsors were trying to outdo their predecessors in magnificence, and so they put extreme amounts of time, effort, and money into their versions of the battles. A handful of emperors, including Augustus and Caesar, used the colosseum or other previously established arenas in order to stage their naumachiae, but most constructed special structures or dug lakes for these spectacles[18]. Nero’s amphitheater, built in 57 CE, was significant in particular because it was made of wood[19]. The naumachia was not even the most remarkable aspect of this amphitheater. Nero placed fish, bears, seals, and hippopotamuses in the arena while it was being flooded, and included those as a part of the story of the naval battle[20]. The sheer spectacle of the event placed Nero at a standard that many would strive to reach after him. Unfortunately, his amphitheater burned to the ground during the famous Roman Fire in 64 CE, and therefore was not able to be used by later sponsors[21].
Aside from building their own structures, the sponsors had to find a way of flooding the space. This problem was solved in one of two ways; through the digging of an actual lake outside of the structures of the arena, or constructing a special aqueduct to carry water in and out[22]. The first lake dug for the naumachiae was by Julius Caesar in 46 BCE[23]. This naumachia was famous for reenacting one of Caesar’s triumphs against the Egyptians and involving infantry, cavalry, and elephants. Caesar ordered the basin specially built, and it survived after the original intent, though it was filled in during Augustus’ reign because of an outbreak of malaria from the stagnant water[24]. Augustus decided on the same course, and dug a second lake near the Tiber in Trastevere in 2 BCE[25]. This lake is much more well known, as it became the first permanent naumachia, as the word refers to both the event itself as well as the structure where the event takes place[26]. Augustus called his lake the Nemus Caesarum, in honor of Caesar’s dedication of the Temple of Mars[27], and planted a grove of trees around it[28]. It was used by Nero and Titus for some of their spectacles after Augustus’ death. The most spectacular naumachia was exhibited by Claudius on Lake Fucinus in 52 CE[29], from which the phrase morituri te salutamus was recorded. It involved over 19,000 participants, and the sole intention was to cause mass casualty in order to please the audience. Not only was the number of soldiers so great, but some of the most advanced technological spectacle occurred during this naumachia as well, as Claudius designed a silver statue of the minor sea god Triton to rise from the middle of the lake and blow a trumpet, thereby starting the event[30]. This enactment of a fictional battle between the Sicilians and Rhodians was received well by the eager audiences, and has gone down in history because of many writers, including Tacitus and Dio, recording their reactions as well as the crowd’s[31].
The other option for holding naumachiae was to bring water into previously established structures, specifically the Circus Maximus and the Colosseum. Since these entertainment centers tended to be situated in low-lying areas [32], it was easier to bring the water in. These amphitheaters were some of the most frequently flooded structures in the city, as all amphitheaters of Roman designed had to be built on flat land, unlike the theaters of the Greeks which were built into the hillsides. Because of the tendency with which the theaters were accidentally flooded, to purposefully flood them for the naumachiae would not have cost more than any other community project[33], and so would be acceptable to the tax-paying citizens. To make future naumachiae easier to hold, Augustus had the Aqueduct Alsietina–also known as the Aqueduct Augusta–built specifically to supply the naval battles held in the Colosseum[34]. It was located along the right bank of the Tiber, at sixteen meters above sea level, which had the worst water quality. According to Frontinus, this site was chosen so that the “… special conduit [would] avoid robbing the more wholesome supplies…”[35]. This aqueduct supplied many of the future naumachiae with water, and was also used for irrigation of nearby gardens[36]. Running for approximately fourteen miles, this aqueduct was expensive to build, but also served other uses, unlike the lakes dug by the other emperors. Only one naumachia, held by Sextus Pompeius in 40 BCE, was played out on the actual ocean; it occurred directly after Pompeius’ victory against Sicily, and so reenacted the battles that had just been fought in order to secure that victory[37]. It was not well-received, as the general public were not the ones to witness it, the only audience being the soldiers who had actually fought in the real battles and were not particularly eager to reenact them.
After flooding or otherwise creating the “sea” upon which to hold the sea battle, ships and other props had to be brought in. The number of ships that were used ranged from one to more than fifty; Caligula was ridiculed for digging a lake only big enough for one ship[38], while Domitian specifically dug lakes in order to hold enough ships to make up two actual-sized fleets[39]. A Roman trireme, including its oars, occupied ten meters of lateral space, so the sheer amount of room that had to be constructed for these lavish spectacles is tremendous; either that, or the ships used were miniature replicas in order to have more than one ship at a time on the water[40]. Sets also could involve garden props or land elements, especially if additional characteristics were added to the spectacle, such as Domitian’s use of terrestrial animals, though he was the only one to do this[41]. Most of the action was directed to the fighting, however, and so the sets did not need to be elaborate.
Since spectator interest depended on opposing sides being easily distinguishable, colored costumes were insufficient in order to distinguish which side the audience should be encouraging to win[42]. Luckily, because of the historical context with which the battles were staged, it was easier to tell the opponents apart due to the realistic aspect of the performance. Props were also fairly simple, as the only real things needed for the fights to proceed were the weapons used for the participants to kill each other. Unlike scripted theater, music was not employed during the naumachiae, with the exception of Claudius’ silver Triton sounding the battle horn. This was also translated into the special effects of a fight, examples of which also include Nero’s sea creatures and Domitian’s terrestrial animals.
The audience enjoyed these events primarily because of the great spectacle. Ovid, famous for his romantic and theatrical works, wrote about Augustus’ naumachia, speaking about the numbers of people who came from all over the country, and the fevered air that caused love and rapture to abound[43]. Martial also wrote about this fight, saying that, “Far greater marvels grace our monarch’s reign… A true sea-battle was reserved for us” [44]. Both of these writers suggest that the power displayed by the naumachia and the feelings it invoked were directly correlated with Augustus’ power, and that the performance reflected the control that the emperor wielded. They also write that the size and spectacle of the naumachia was what caused it to be so popular with the public. Some writers felt that the naumachia was a gross misuse of the emperor’s power, though not because of the cruelty against the prisoners. Dio Cassius spoke of a heavy storm that arose during the performance, and how Augustus refused to let the audience change out of their wet clothes, claiming that it caused many to fall sick and die[45]. Even so, the popularity of the spectacles far outweighed the miseries that might come with the pleasure of the experience, showing that the mentalite of ancient Rome was almost entirely focused on the entertainment of the battles rather than the cruel nature of the performance.
As for the performers, there were no special effects or acting involved. Because the spectacles were essentially mass executions, the spectators expected to watch live killing matches, and their sponsors delivered. The terror and fear that was exuded by the forced soldiers was all real, and while the theatricality of the scene could trick the audience’s minds into enjoying the spectacle simply for being entertaining, there is no doubt that the emotions of the performers was not acted. Naumachiae were not about the beauty, elegance, or skill of any of the fighters, unlike many forms of theater that require actors to train in their art for years. The naval battles were ultimately a show of death. That is why these spectacles should not be referred to as “mock” naval battles; though the scenes were reenactments of historical wars, there was nothing fake about the actual event.
The naumachiae are an accurate reflection of Roman society and the views which accompanied it. The community was very focused on spectacle of entertainment, and expected it from their leaders. As Martial said, people came from all over the empire to see these naval battles. Even though they were aware of the extreme violence and death that would accompany it, people found a perverted sense of joy in watching the historical reenactments. Though these battles seem to be a cruel and barbaric source of entertainment, the primary reasoning behind them was to serve justice upon criminals. The humiliation and death that made up these spectacles was seen as fair recompense for those who had been wronged, putting the focus not on the prisoners, but on appeasing the victims and their families[46]. With all of these factors, the naumachiae could only be performed with a grandiose number of participants, which could only be gathered by the emperor of the greatest empire in the world, whose conquests of their land would gather the required numbers, usually from those invasions of others’ land. However, this should not be considered an effective representation of personal power, as there were far more factors involved in successful conquest than just the emperor, just as there were many more people behind the success of a naumachia.
Today, theater has moved beyond the idea of entertainment being a real-life spectacle. Mass executions are now considered inhumane, and modern scholars disagree on “… the distinctions drawn between the gruesome incongruity and theatricality at the expense of the realism”[47]. There is no contemporary sociological study or juristic source that would be able to provide a modern context in which the type of mass death combined with theatricality that was performed in the naumachiae would occur[48]. However, modern society does still have an affinity for the glory of combat. Historical reenactments of Civil War battles are very popular; they show pieces of history that America is proud of, and glorify warfare, just as the naumachiae did. Renaissance fairs and stage combat are both considered to be artistic pursuits. Fighting is very theatrical when staged, and is extremely engaging for audiences. Though there is no real death involved, the entertainment appeal of violence cannot be denied. Because of the reality of the naumachiae, this type of battle could never be reproduced today without violating core principles and ethics of modern Western civilization. As an attraction, a mock naval battle would be interesting, but “mock” is the operative word in that concept; the truth of the naumachia would have to be absent from the spectacle.
The naumachiae were an extremely cruel way of performing mass executions under the guise of entertainment. The ancient Romans, for whom they were displayed, saw them as a show of power, as each sponsor tried to outdo his predecessor with greater spectacles, technology, and numbers of people. However, there was no glory in being a naumachaii like there was in being a gladiator. The combatants were not specially trained; their sole purpose was to die, as the battle would not end until most or all of the participants were dead. The concept is a barbaric one, because of the lack of concern over the human lives that were being ended to please a crowd, but the technology and innovation required to stage these sea battles was incredibly advanced and skilled. From creating elaborate, technologically-advanced sets to forcing comrades to slaughter each other in the amphitheater, the naumachiae truly represent both the best and the worst of the Roman empire.
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[1] Baker, Rosalie F. “Mock Naval Battles”. Calliope Vol. 16 Issue 3, November 2005, 10.
[2] Leon, H. J. “Morituri Te Salutamus”. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 70, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1939, 49.
[3] Coleman, K. M. “Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments”. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80, The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 1990, 46.
[4] Ibid., 47.
[5] Ibid., 46.
[6] Coleman, K. M. “Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments”, 50.
[7] Ibid., 45.
[8] Ibid., 71.
[9] Townend, G. B. “Calpurnius Siculus and the Munus Neronis”. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70, The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 1980, 166.
[10] Ibid., 170.
[11] Coleman, K. M. “Launching into History: Aquatic Displays in the Early Empire”. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 83, The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 1993, 62.
[12] Ibid., 63.
[13] Coleman, K. M. “Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments”, 72.
[14] Leon, H. J. “Morituri Te Salutamus”, 47.
[15] Ibid., 49.
[16] Ibid., 49.
[17] Ibid., 50.
[18] Taylor, Rabun. “Torrent or Trickle? The Aqua Alsietina, the Naumachia Augusti, and the Transtiberim”. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 101 No. 3, Archaeological Institute of America, July 1997, 473.
[19] Townend, G. B. “Calpurnius Siculus and the Munus Neronis”, 169.
[20] Townend, G. B. “Calpurnius Siculus and the Munus Neronis”, 171.
[21] Ibid., 173.
[22] Ashby, Thomas. The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. Edited by I. A. Richmond. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1935, 13.
[23] Coleman, K. M. “Launching into History: Aquatic Displays in the Early Empire”, 49.
[24] Smith, William. “Nauma’chia”. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Third Edition Vol. 2, London: John Murray, 1914, 792.
[25] Coleman, K. M. “Launching into History: Aquatic Displays in the Early Empire”, 51.
[26] Ibid., 50.
[27] Grant, Michael. Gladiators. Edited by John Gross. New York: Delacorte Press, 1967, 89.
[28] Smith, William. “Nauma’chia”, 792.
[29] Coleman, K. M. “Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments”, 71.
[30] Ibid., 71.
[31] Leon, H. J. “Morituri Te Salutamus”, 49.
[32] Aldrete, Gregory S. Floods of the Tiber in Ancient Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press: 2007, 206.
[33] Ibid., 228.
[34] Ashby, Thomas. The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome, 13.
[35] Ashby, Thomas. The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome, 183.
[36] Ibid., 13.
[37] Coleman, K. M. “Launching into History: Aquatic Displays in the Early Empire”, 55.
[38] Ibid., 56.
[39] Ibid., 54.
[40] Ibid., 61.
[41] Coleman, K. M. “Launching into History: Aquatic Displays in the Early Empire”, 65.
[42] Coleman, K. M. “Launching into History: Aquatic Displays in the Early Empire”, 71.
[43] Grant, Michael. Gladiators, 89.
[44] Ibid., 91.
[45] Grant, Michael. Gladiators, 91.
[46] Coleman, K. M. “Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments”, 46.
[47] Coleman, K. M. “Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments”, 44.
[48] Ibid., 45.
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